Critical Thinking Exercise

� Do you ever find yourself doing things you don�t want to do (e.g., vices) and not doing things you want to do (e.g., virtues)?� Why do you think this is?

Motivation

� The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological __ or _ are met (Petri, 1996).

Approaches to Understanding Motivation

� Instinct Approaches

� Drive-Reduction Approaches

� Arousal Approaches

� Incentive Approaches

� Maslow�s Hierarchy of Needs

Instinct Approaches to Motivation

� Instinct approach - approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of ________________ (McDougall, 1908).

� Instincts - the _____________________________ and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

� Drive-reduction theory - approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce _ and __ (Hull, 1943).

� Need - a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for ________________ of the organism.

� Drive - a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to _ the need and ___ the tension.

� Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of the ______________ such as hunger and thirst.

� Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are ________________ through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

� Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a ______________.

Three Types of Needs (McClelland, 1987)

� Need for achievement (nAch) - a need that involves a strong desire to succeed in _______________________, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones.

� Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need for friendly social interactions and ___________________ with others.

� Need for power (nPow) - the need to have ______________ or influence over others.

Arousal Approach to Motivation

� Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of __________________ that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation (Hebb, 1955).

� Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be ____________________ but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

� Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating _______________ is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high (Teigen, 1994; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).

� This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: easy tasks require a high-moderate level while more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.

� Sensation seeker - someone who needs more ________________ than the average person (Zuckerman, 1994).

Incentive Approaches to Motivation

� Incentive approaches - theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its _____________ properties (Atkinson, 1958/1983).

� Incentives - things that attract or __________ people into action.

� Expectancy-value theories - incentive theories that assume the _________________ of humans cannot be predicted or fully understood without understanding the beliefs, values, and the importance that a person attaches to those beliefs and values at any given moment in time (Lewin, 1936, Rotter, 1954).

Maslow�s Hierarchy of Needs (1954)

Hunger and Eating: A Unique Motivation

� The Role of the Hypothalamus

� Ventromedial Hypothalamus - may be involved in stopping the eating response when _______________ levels go up (Neary et al., 2004).

� Lateral Hypothalamus - seems to influence the ___________ of eating when insulin levels go up (Neary et al., 2004).

� Social Components of Hunger:

� Hunger and eating as a result of classical conditioning (e.g., time of day)

� Eating to cope with ______________ (e.g., comfort food) (Dallman et al., 2003)

� Cultural customs and social expectations:

� Americans are more likely than _________________ to eat while watching television or movies (Hawks et al., 2003).

Maladaptive Eating Problems

� Obesity - a condition in which the body weight of a person is _______ percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person�s height (actual percents vary across definitions).

� ________________ has the highest rate of obesity� (31%) in the world (Friedman, 2000, 2003; Marik, 2000; Mokdad et al., 2001).

� Anorexia Nervosa - a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs.

� Bulimia - a condition in which a person develops a cycle of �� or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and �____� or deliberately vomiting after eating.

Emotion

� A psychological state with four components:

� A positive or negative _______________ experience.

� The activation of specific _________________________ and stored information.

� Bodily arousal.

� Characteristic overt _______________.

Basic Emotions (Ekman, 1984)

� Basic Emotions - a proposed set of _______________ emotions that are common to all humans and from which other higher-order emotions may derive.

� Happiness

� Anger

� Sadness

� Fear

� Disgust

� Surprise

Expressing Emotions

� Display rules - learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in ______________ settings (heavily influenced by culture) (Ekman, 1973).

� Body language

� Role in conveying sexual interest (Grammar, 1990)

� Men: open postures, legs relaxed and open, watched women

� Women: presented body slightly to the side, uncrossed arms and legs, avoided eye contact

� Closed postures signaled lack of interest for both

Separate but Equal Emotions

� We can experience positive and negative emotions ________________.

� Separate brain systems (Simon-Thomas et al., 2005)

� Approach emotions (+): left frontal lobe

� Love & Happiness

� Withdrawal emotions (-): right frontal lobe

� Fear & Disgust

Theories of Emotions

� James-Lange Theory of Emotion - _________________ reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion.

� Canon-Bard Theory of Emotion - physiological reaction and emotion are assumed to occur at the ___________________.

� Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion � both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the ________________ must occur before the emotion is experienced.

� The Schacter-Singer Experiment (1962) - Emotional response depended upon the context.

� Facial Feedback Hypothesis - theory assuming that ________________ provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn cause and intensifies the emotion.

� Smiling makes you feel happier

� Frowning makes you feel sadder

Positive Psychology Movement

� Positive Psychology Movement - a viewpoint that recommends shifting the focus of psychology away from the _________________________ to a more positive focus on strengths, well-being, and the pursuit of happiness.